The Spanish Philosopher Who Best Understood Populism

“For Ortega y Gasset, the elite has nothing to do with class or any other kind sociocultural factors. The elite are simply those who make great demands of themselves.”

Does anyone really like the modern world—or believe that things are going in the right direction? Statistically speaking, the answer is that in the majority of countries surveyed in a recent Ipsos poll, most “think that their nation is on the wrong track.” So it is an increasingly small minority who believes things are going well. Furthermore, that minority seems to be largely comprised of those who actively advocated for and helped bring about the current neoliberal order. This is especially true when it comes to the opinion-makers and commentators present in our public discourse. In any case, what is clear is that those on both the Left and the Right seem increasingly dissatisfied with the current state of affairs. This poses a problem for the Left because critiques of modernity and liberalism can easily acquire a reactionary flavor. This should not be surprising; when modernity becomes unbearable, it is much easier to look to the past than to the future. After all, the past offers concrete and real models of social organizations that have worked before and can serve as examples for how to fix present problems. The future, on the other hand, is uncertain. I think it is understandable, then, that the current populist mood has primarily benefited the Right. Yet, the Left needs an effective critique of modernity. That is not to say that there are none. My intention here is simply to present one that, I believe, should receive more attention than it has, given how relevant it seems to our time.

José Ortega y Gasset was an early 20th century Spanish philosopher, known for his interest in the philosophy of history, as well as for drawing from both Kant and Nietzsche in his works. The Revolt of the Masses is perhaps his best-known work, but it is also his least explicitly political work. During his early years, before World War I, José Ortega y Gasset wrote many essays defending both liberal democracy and non-Marxist forms of socialism. Most of these essays have a very optimistic tone. However, by the time of the publication of The Revolt of the Masses in 1930, the tone of writings had changed considerably. This was no doubt influenced by the wave of nationalism and totalitarian governments that were ascendant during this time, particularly in Italy. While comparisons should be kept within appropriate proportions, the parallels between the interwar period and the late 2010’s are what make this comparison interesting.

Ortega y Gasset remained a socialist, even if only in his very particular understanding of socialism, even after The Revolt of the Masses was published. In 1931, he was even elected as a representative of the newly established Second Republic, as part of a group of candidates supporting the socialist platform. The socialists went on to become part of the broad left-wing coalition that became the dominant force in the Republic’s short history. The Second Republic was the government that lasted from 1931, when elections were held after dictator Primo de Rivera was ousted, until the failed coup by Francisco Franco in 1936, which led to a bloody civil war. Now, the book, taken in isolation, does not have a particularly left-wing viewpoint. It can only be interpreted as such when it is analyzed in context with his other more explicitly political writing, and his direct involvement in Spanish politics. In fact, this book is often somewhat elitist (as will be explained later). This is just one of the several aspects of the book that could be seen as objectionable from a more orthodox left-wing position. What I believe is valuable, however, is not the critique of modernity in itself. There is no solution either, but rather there is a kind of blueprint for how one might arrive at an appropriate solution: one that avoids the pitfalls of reactionary politics. But first, a few words on the problem should be said.